Death of a Salesman Essay

In 1949; whilst America saw the culmination of anti-communist feelings, fear of the unknown and the general hysteria which stemmed from the Cold War against Russia; playwright Arthur Miller published what was seen to be a personal criticism of the American way of life, his play, â€Å"Death of A Salesman†. Death of A Salesman tells the story of Willy Loman, a lowly salesman slowly being estranged from society and increasingly led into confusion by his attempts to escape his own failure brought about by the great American Dream he has served so loyally. It was for this play Miller was brought in front of HUAC (house un-American activities committee) and charged with undermining American Values. Miller defended himself by claiming he simply aspired to â€Å"show the truth as [he] saw it†. It is because Miller insisted on adhering to realism, that he chose a normal, â€Å"Loman†, or literally, low man, to be his Tragic Hero. In doing so, Miller broke one rule- that of Aristotelian tragedy, which demands a â€Å"noble† hero, of high birth; and simultaneously abided by another, the rule of a Modern Domestic Tragedy which requires an ordinary person’s story to be told. Whilst Milton would have deplored this â€Å"introducing of trivial and vulgar persons [into tragedy]†, Miller dismissed all criticism of his choice of hero, demanding his accusers to recognise â€Å"it matters not whether the hero falls from a great height or a small one†, or as Linda puts it, â€Å"he’s not the finest character who ever lived. But he’s a human being and a terrible thing is happening to him† the importance then, lies in the way and reason for which the character falls. Willy does, however, comply with both the moulds of an Aristotelian tragedy and Modern Domestic Tragedy in that he suffers from a Hamartia which results in his fall from grace and eventual death. Most critics and audiences identify Willy’s Hamartia as his Hubris, his over inflated sense of self-worth and pride, which means he refuses help even as he becomes increasingly lost. However, a few critics complain that Willy cannot be a tragic hero, as he does not have one fatal flaw but many which combine to bring Willy down. This idea, as expressed by Thomas Adler, Ruby Cohn and others rests on the existence of other factors in Willy’s life, Willy is not only proud, but stupid, cursed with the wrong dreams, lacking in vision and most of all weak. It is this weakness which prohibits him from escaping the â€Å"Jungle† of the American Dream, meaning he dies within it; a result of it and as a sacrifice to it, hoping that his death will reveal the â€Å"diamonds† he seeks. Willy’s actual death in Death of A Salesman is not shown on stage, but rather, it is symbolised by the â€Å"sound of a car†¦moving away at full speed† then the â€Å"crash[ing] down [of music]† which in turn morphs into â€Å"a dead march†, not explicitly showing the morbid act, but implying it heavily enough for the audience to be in no doubt of its occurrence. It is typical of a Modern Domestic Tragedy death not to occur in front of the audience. The music in this ‘death scene’ is poignant, powerful and very implicit to the plot, without it the audience would not know of Willy’s death. Music runs throughout the play as a catalyst through which Miller makes the subtler, unspoken â€Å"presences† or emotions known. Take for example the flute’s melody which serves as both a melancholy theme tune to Willy’s failings and a musical embodiment of his estranged Father’s ghost, who â€Å"made more in a week than a man like [Willy] could in a lifetime† . The flute embodies both these roles in â€Å"Requiem†. First, Willy’s failings are made clearer than ever as Linda starts to truly mourn her husband and elicit an impossible last goodbye from him. Second, flute also shows Willy’s father’s presence because we know it is from his father that Willy got the â€Å"wrong dreams† which drove him to the grave Linda sits by. It is perhaps important to consider the role of ‘ghosts’ or past figures which appear throughout the play. Ghosts and figures from the past litter tragedy throughout the centuries. Indeed, the oldest surviving complete tragedy, Aeschylus’s Persians (472 BC) features the ghost of the dead King Darius returning from the past to cast judgement over his son Xerxes, whom he deems to be failing in his role and pursuing the wrong dreams. This is not unlike the mocking presence of Willy’s own father and his brother Ben, both deceased who continue to taunt Willy with dreams he cannot achieve. Willy’s suicide is at once self-congratulating, misguided and selfless. He wants to escape the feeling he is â€Å"temporary† by truly leaving something behind, â€Å"something one can feel with the hand†. This something is his â€Å"diamond† of the $20,000 insurance money, which will make him a â€Å"hero† for Biff to â€Å"worship† and helping Biff to start up a business of his own. Requiem holds no answers as to whether the premium was paid and through this and the melancholy despair that runs through the final scene, Miller shows how pointless Willy’s death truly was. No matter how much money he leaves behind, it will never compensate for the loss the family has to endure. Linda cannot even understand his motives and Happy encapsulates the mood when he declares â€Å"There was no necessity for it†. A sad twist of irony is Biff making it clear he is moving away. Thus, he would never have used the money anyway. This shows the true uselessness of Willy’s death and also his father’s lack of understanding of his own son, who from the start is happiest in the open â€Å"playing around with horses†. However a sadder twist is Happy’s utter unwillingness to learn from his father’s mistakes, and despite declaring â€Å"Willy Loman did not die in vain† he goes on to prove the opposite, promising to â€Å"win it for him [Willy]†. The Requiem shows Willy’s final delusion shattered. There is a simple answer to Linda’s piteous, â€Å"why did nobody come? † The answer is that Willy was not, contrary to what he claims time and time again, â€Å"known†, because he has not changed with the times, and the old values he clings to do not make a man â€Å"known† or â€Å"a success† at all. Evidence of Willy’s failure to change with time can be traced back to, as Richard T. Brucher puts it, Willy’s â€Å"unexpected, marvellingly innocent question†: â€Å"How can they whip cheese? † Such a simple statement exemplifies his static approach to modern life; he wants everything to return to the â€Å"great days† and is unwilling to change anything, least of all his expectations and aspirations. Irony is another key feature of a Modern Domestic Tragedy and Linda’s last lines, her mantra of reassurance, â€Å"We’re Free†¦ We’re free† is more heavily laden with irony than any other line of the play. The lines are applicable in so many different ways, not only the upfront meaning of the family being free from debt. They also despondently relay Miller’s message that if you live following the American Dream and have consumerism as your only moral compass and religion, then the only way to free yourself is to die. A much more cynical view of Linda’s words, as proposed by D. L. Hoeveler, suggests they epitomise the family’s darker subconscious thoughts, that now Willy is gone, they no longer have to continue on the paths they were forced down. They are â€Å"free† of the burden Willy placed on them. However, the earlier events show that despite no longer being pushed down the path of the American Dream, Happy will continue to pursue it, so this interpretation too is heavily ironic. As for Linda, being â€Å"free† from the burden of Willy is certainly not what she would wish for, after all she â€Å"more than loves him† and even his â€Å"little cruelties† do not change this. She needs to look after Willy so that she has a purpose and an aim. The play ends as it began, bringing the action back to the beginning and lending a continuous rhythm to the play, with Linda’s anxious disconcerted calling to the deceased Willy, mimicking her trepidation in the opening scene when Willy enters. It is the flute which opens and closes the play. Everything reverting back to the way the play started shows how insignificant Willy’s death really is. Capitalism does not crumble, life goes on. It is here that I believe Modern Domestic Tragedies are flawed, where Shakespearian ones are not. When Macbeth dies, the audience is certain that his Kingdom will mourn his loss, however warped he was, he was still their King. There will be a â€Å"massive† funeral, of the sorts Willy dreams of, and a Kingdom-wide expression of collective grief. It is this grief that I believe provides the catharsis of emotion for the audience, they know his death will continue to be felt after they leave the theatre and this assurance brings closure. This closure however, does not exist in Modern Domestic Tragedies. Willy’s death will go unnoticed by most, and this does not bring significant catharsis to the audience. There is no final completion of raw emotion. To support my view I can only offer the words of Shakespeare himself, â€Å"The poor beetle on which we tread In corporal sufferance feels a pang as great As when a Giant dies. â€Å"

Indian Premier League Essay

Cricket is a very fast-paced, high-energy sport but it’s also big business. Professional teams that belong to the Indian Premier League pay each of their players, the estimated value that could range from INR 20 lakh (INR 2 million) to INR 2 crore (INR 20 million) per year depending on his experience and stature. For that amount of money, member teams expect a great deal and are constantly on the watch for ways of improving their performance. During a 59-game season, every nuance a coach can pick up about a weakness in an opponent’s offense or the shots of one of his own players will translate into more runs on the scoreboard, more wins, and ultimately more money for the team. Traditional cricket game statistics failed to capture all of the details associated with every play and was not easily related to videotapes of games. As a result, decisions about changes in tactics or how to take advantage of opponents’ weaknesses were based primarily on hunches and gut instincts. Coaches could not easily answer questions such as â€Å"Which types of plays are hurting us? † Now professional cricket coaches and managers are taking their cues from other businesses and learning how to make decisions based on hard data. The software available with the Indian Team was very generic and did not produce any analytical information. For the same reason, John Wright wanted to have quite a few reports to help him make decisions based on the statistical data. A company called Sports Mechanics has found a way to collect and organize fine-grained statistical data and relate the data to associated video clips. Sports Mechanics employs just 5 people to match up video of each play with statistical information about every ball bowled within the match. For example, who bowled it, who is the batsman, who is the non-striker, where did the ball pitch, what did the ball do, where was the ball hit, how many runs were scored off it, who fielded it, how did he field it, which end did he throw, what was the outcome of the ball, etc. Once the tagging is done, when the query is done according to the tag, then the relevant video plays. Queries can be done by multiple layers of filters by bowler, by batsman, by type of ball, etc. Each game is dissected and tagged, play by play, using hundreds of descriptive categories and these data are linked to high-resolution video. Coaches then use an index to locate the exact video clip in which they are interested and access the video at a protected Web site. Within seconds they are able to watch streaming video on the protected site or they can download it to laptops, iPods, play stations, etc. For example, if the Kolkata Knightriders have just lost to the Rajasthan Royals and gave up too many runs, Knightriders coach can use Sports Mechanics’ service to see video clips of every Rajasthan Royals’ batting performance in the game. He can also view every Kolkata Knightriders transitional situation for the entire season to see how that game compared with others. According to Kolkata Knightriders owner Shahrukh Khan, â€Å"the system allows us to look at every play, in every way, and tie it back to stats. So we can watch how we played every ball, track our success rate, and see how other teams are doing it. The service helps coaches analyze the strengths and weaknesses of individual players. For example, Sports Mechanics’ system has recorded every offensive step of the Kolkata Knightriders’ Shoaib Akhtar since he joined IPL. The system can show how successfully he is blowing in either home or away games, with the ability to break games and player performance into increasingly finer-grained categories. If a user clicks on any statistic, that person will find video clips from any of the games of any season of IPL that show Shoaib’s particular bowling move. Mr. S. Ramakrishnan, the Indian Cricket Team Analyst and the founder of Sports Mechanics has since 2003 helped over 5,000 cricketers and provided analysis and soft ware to ICC and 21 countries. About 7 teams in the IPL; all except Royal Challengers have already signed up for the Sports Mechanics’ service, and are using it to help them scout for promising national and international players. Although nothing will ever replace the need to scout players in person, the service has reduced IPL teams’ skyrocketing travel costs. Sources: Sports Mechanics; Base 1 USD = 50 INR as of 11, January, 2009 The challenges facing IPL teams show why information systems are so essential today. Like other businesses, professional cricket faces pressure from high costs, especially for team member salaries and travel to search for new talent. Teams are trying to increase revenue by improving employee performance, especially the performance of cricket team members. The chapter-opening diagram calls attention to important points raised by this case and this chapter. Management was unable to make good decisions about how to improve the performance of teams and of individual players because it lacked precise data about plays. It had to rely on â€Å"best guesses† based on videotapes of games. Management found a new information system to provide better information. The information system is based on a service provided by Sports Mechanics. Sports Mechanics’ staff members break down each game into a series of plays and then categorize each play by players, type of play, and the outcome. These data are tagged to the videos they describe to make the videos easy to search. IPL coaches and management can analyze the data to see which offensive and defensive moves are the most effective for each team player. Team members themselves can use laptops, play stations, iPods, etc to download the videos to help them prepare for games. This innovative solution makes it possible for basketball management to use objective statistical data about players, plays and outcomes to improve their decision making about what players should or shouldn’t do to most effectively counter their opponents.

Personal transport Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Personal transport - Essay Example In light of this, the paper seeks to critically analyze the future of the automotive transport. Right from the onset, it is important to understand that the future of automotive transport will be affected by other factors besides the infrastructure. Social, economic, technical, and political factors significantly influence the sector. First, there is the ever-rising issue of carbon-emission where environmentalists are quite concerned. According to Sperling and Salon (2005), transportation accounts for the greatest portion of greenhouse gas emission. Consequently, the adverse effects of global warming continue to have negative effect on the environment, which is crucial to humans’ livelihoods. With the effects of global warming, evident to all, personal transport could have negative implications socially. Because of these threats proving to be detrimental to humans, it has been recommended that alternative means of transport be incorporated. These include walking, cycling, and public transport where the first two are not possible. As expected, these assertions have been met with both contestations and resistance. According to Maynard (2007), green cars could be encouraged instead of doing away with the personal vehicle as the mode of transport. Further, companies could be compelled to produce cars, which are environment-friendly. As a result, this would ease the pressure on the environment. While the above suggestions are perfectly sound, there are challenges that prove to be too hard for the realization. First, there is no law or agreement yet by countries to have this suggestion become a law. Even though some companies have started this initiative, Maynard (2007) noted that it is yet to be embraced by all automobile dealers. Because of the bureaucracies involved in this process, it may not be possible to enact this suggestion soon. However, even if it happens the future of personal transport will face other challenges. For instance, the

Importance of Organizations Concerned With Elderly Populace Essay

Importance of Organizations Concerned With Elderly Populace - Essay Example Ageing comes with several diseases like Alzheimer’s disease, Werner syndrome and renal failure. These conditions should be prevented or treated immediately. Therefore, organizations that deal with ageing populace such as AARP have doctors and nurses who are qualified and competent in old age-related diseases. Â  Their programs cater for fitness activities that include body and mental exercises to prevent related diseases. The elderly populace train in the gym with a qualified trainer competent in old-age exercises, and involve in mental games to jog their brains (Howard, 2012). Â  Examples of elderly games include music therapy, video, digital and computer games (National Council on Aging, 2012). These activities prevent diseases, unify the elderly and keep them busy thus they maintain their health.3. Government benefits most of the elderly populace have stopped working and are dependent individuals who need financial assistance. The organizations have come into aid since th ese individuals may have no family members alive who can aid in the paperwork. The organizations assume this task and solicit the funds for them (National Council on Aging, 2012). The funds are partly given to organizations and partly given to individuals. This is to ensure an efficient program by the organization and financial independence for the elderly. Â  The organizations use the money for shelter, garments, foodstuff, healthcare and other festive activities like world tours for the elderly, which unifies them.

Case study (12 Questions)_Chronic Obstructive pulmonary disease Essay

Case study (12 Questions)_Chronic Obstructive pulmonary disease - Essay Example Antibiotic therapy is directed at the most common pathogens, including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis. Mild to moderate exacerbations of COPD are usually treated with older broad-spectrum antibiotics such as doxycycline, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and amoxicillin-clavulanate potassium. While doing the abovementioned management for the patient, detailed history should be done, if not obtained from the patient, from the companion. Risk factors, medications,measures done should be detailed. The vital signs of the patient should be checked constantly making sure that values are within normal. In-depth physical examination, not only of the respiratory system, but also of other systems should be done. The patient should be hooked on pulse oximeter to check for oxygenation status. Angela is also extremely distressed on arrival and asks "She is going to be all right isnt she? I know this is my fault - I wanted her to do everything – spend time with me when I knew she was busy!" Chronic pulmonary obstructive diseases is characterized by the inflammation of the lungs especially the small airways as a reaction of the body to inhaled toxins, cigarette smoke, dust and other particles due to air pollution or indoor cooking. Chronic productive cough, sputum and bronchoconstriction also result due to chronic bronchitis but ciliary dysfunctions may cause difficulties in expectorating (Devereux, 2006). The inflammation triggers a series of reactions that can lead to destruction of tissues, defense and repair mechanisms. Overworked proteases and antioxidants that fight off oxidative stress created by lung inflammation causes imbalance of these molecules in the lungs. Metalloproteases and other proteases increase due to increased number of macrophages, neutrophils, and T lymphocytes which are also involved in the pathogenesis of emphysema due to injuries in

Demographic Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Demographic Assignment - Essay Example Other than all formal meetings, I like to wear T-shirts and loose pants to give the impression of carelessness. Having tight budgets, I tend to travel by bus and train rather than airline. Part II. Select and watch 2 hours of television (does not have to be continuous), including the commercials. Based on what you’ve seen, provide a viewer profile for each show and discuss your findings. During the two hours, multiple programs are shown on Television. They include reality shows, news programs, commercials and entertainment shows. The audience of every type of program is different. Businessmen are mostly interested in current affairs; house wives are interested in commercials, while people of all age and profession are attracted by entertainment shows. It is because, it provides them an opportunity to change their mood and relax from the busy hectic daily routine. News headlines are attractive to all, while the detail is often skipped. Understanding of demographics will help firms to better design their products and marketing activities to fit customer preferences. They will design commercials to attract the specific target group and schedule their commercials keeping in view their

Deisel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Deisel - Essay Example Since Diesel lies in the luxury sector, the products and services provided to the clients in the United States are on the high-end wealth spectrum. These groups are insensitive to prices and prefer spending their income and time on clothes as well as other accessories that portray opulence as opposed to necessities. For these reasons, the prestige and luxury brands that Diesel provides its clients in the United States have attracted an unwavering and illogical loyalty from consumers (Trebay). In the United States today, the luxury scene has been influenced by a variety of factors. A mass class of rich people has developed in different regions across the country. This is due to social, economic, and technological breakthroughs. In addition, Diesel has been forced to introduce a broad range of luxury brands in the company in order to eliminate the barriers that have dominated the industry for some time. It has also provided the different groups of consumers with more choice in order to succeed in the market. Furthermore, the rapid growth being witnessed in information, digital, and communication technology has allowed Diesel to give its consumers in the U.S. more variety in terms of luxury products. In this case, the company is able to view choices as well as lower switching costs particularly in the Internet. This has made it possible for clients to be more experimental, individualistic and bold enough to combine luxury as well as high-street fashion to a single outfit (T rebay). To continue operating successfully in the United States, Diesel has manipulated its marketing mix strategies, which have allowed the company to christen its fashion brands for it to be similar to other luxury brands in the country. Furthermore, the prevalence of mass-premium brands is prevalent in best locations, such as New York. In this case, the company is now capable of acting as well as speaking as a high-end brand that has set the trend in the country. Diesel has managed

My Education Philosophy Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

My Education Philosophy - Personal Statement Example Throughout my life, I have always been prepared and organized in my academic career. I want to be a teacher in order to narrow the gap between theory and practice. The theory and pedagogies that I acquired in the classrooms truly expanded and implemented theories and practices that I can embed in the classrooms. This course explored the roles of the writing tutor, strategies for maintaining interpersonal interaction, and challenges that tutors overcame. As a tutor, it is important to account for the differences in learning styles that are prevalent between students. I feel that the role of the teacher is to act as a facilitator, paving the channels of knowledge, nurture, and creating an environment of collaboration that can truly create an aura of formidable experience for a student. I firmly belief that my academic education along with engagements in peer tutoring is critical towards my pursuit to obtain my education that not only will harness my growth in professional development, but will enable me to gain a better sense of the law that govern society. As a dedicated student, my work ethics along with my superb leadership skills have become the catalyst for my academic success. I look forward to fresh set of challenges that I will have to overcome not only as a student, but as a young adult ready to explore the essence of real

Sport Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Sport Psychology - Essay Example This could turn into a motivating environment and drive better performance, provided the person in confident and good in what he or she is doing. However, if the person is not sure of his or her abilities, it could also very well turn out to be an anti-climax as the presence of people would worsen the level of confidence and eventually degenerate the performance of the individual. The concept of social facilitation becomes all the more important when it comes to sports. Since, every sport in the world has an audience, it is imperative that the athlete should be mentally geared to face the audience. In the highly competitive world of mind games, psychological toughness is of Herculean importance. Confidence is a factor that separates the great from the good and it comes with practice and self-belief. Hence, a good performer can be made to do perform better by introducing motivational factors like cheerleaders. If a person is lacking in skill, it can always be made up through hard work and training. However, if this lag is coupled with the pressure of performing under an audience, it will only make things worse (Watt & Ramakers, 2003). Hence, such an individual needs to practice alone at first, in the absence of an audience to boost up confidence levels and to instill faith in his or her own abilities. The next step would be to mentally train and prepare to cope with the pressure of playing in the presence of an audience. A person lacking mental grit needs to put it a lot of effort to face his or her worst fear which is more often than not, failure. If one can overcome this fear, half the battle is won. This process of mentally tuning up would also involve external as well as internal stimuli. The role of external stimulus is usually played by the coach and self-motivation does the rest of the job. A t-test was conducted to understand this phenomenon of social facilitation. A t-test is usually performed to compare and analyse the performance results of two groups. A group of six individuals, comprising of both men and women were asked to participate in an event. The first set of readings was taken with all participants competing alone as individuals. Then, they were made to participate together as a team. The results obtained from this exercise were also tabulated. A rather interesting trend was observed throughout the course of this test. It was observed that all of them took more time to finish the event when they were co-acting. This could be directly inferred from the values of mean and standard deviation in both cases. The mean time while the group was co-acting was 231 seconds compared to a mere 98.6 seconds in the case of individual competition. The standard deviation figures too indicated a similar trend. Usually, standard deviation is used to determine the degree of va riation. In the case of individual competition, the standard deviation was 23.8 and it was 120.6 while the participants were co-acting. This gives a clear indication of social facilitation playing a strong impact on all the individuals present in the group. All the participants performed better when they were competing as individuals. However, their performance was found to deteriorate when they were co

Organisational functions Essay Example for Free

Organisational functions Essay All organisations require resources to carry out their functions. One way of judging the success of a business is to compare the resources it uses with the value of the product that results.  Resources of the business.  One way of considering the resources used by a business is to classify them into factors of production. The main factors of production are capital, labour and land. Capital-refers to any manufactured product used by the business to make products. This category therefore includes all machinery, vehicles and office equipment used in businesses.   Labour-is the human resource used by business organisations during production. It refers to the input of physical or mental activity by employees.  Land-in the context of this classification is not only the site on which the business is located , but also all the natural resources it might use. The functions of business.  All businesses combine factors of production as an essential part of their production activities. To combine these factors, to engage in production and to achieve their objectives organisations undertake a number of functions. The major business functions include:  Finance  Production  Human resources  Marketing  Administration  Research and development.  Finance. A separate department normally carries out the finance function of the business. The finance department carries out a number of key activities.  These are summarised in the diagrams beside.  Production  Production covers all the activities that must be undertaken to make firms products. Human resources.  In modern businesses, human resources management is now taking on the role previously carried out by personnel management. There is a very clear distinction between personnel management and human resource management.  Personnel management considers the tasks involved in managing people-recruitment, selection and so fourth as separate elements.  Human resource management (HRM) elevates the effective use of a businesss labour

Improving Eye Care In Rural India Communications Essay

Improving Eye Care In Rural India Communications Essay CATARACT refers to the clouding of the lens in the human eye, affecting vision. In the developing world, cataract is the cause for blindness in nearly half the blind population i.e. 50% of the recorded number of blindness cases. While problems of inaccessibility continue to plague many parts of the developing world nearly two-thirds of the population in many developing countries are unable to access quality medical resources infrastructure primarily because quality medical care or eye care in this case is still urban-centric all hope is not lost yet. In India too, where 90% of the cases are treatable, most Indians lack access to quality eye care. In the early 1990s, the country was home to a third of the worlds blind people and here too cataract blindness was the major cause in most cases. The World Bank decided to step in and help the Indian government deal with the problem, spending $144.8 million between 1994 and 2002 on the Cataract Blindness Control Project under which 15.3 million eye surgeries were performed. The World Bank-funded project was largely implemented in northern India and it helped reduce the incidence of cataract, in the states that were covered under this project, by half. But India is a very big country and it definitely needs a more sustainable approach to dealing with cataract blindness given that it has a sizeable ageing population. One such approach is the Aravind Eye Care System, a three-decade old campaign that has been fighting cataract blindness predominantly in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nad u. Working in the same direction is the L V Prasdad Eye Institue, operating from the neighbouring state of Andhra Pradesh. Both Aravind and LVPEI, setup in the mid 1970s and the mid 1980s respectively, have been focused on taking quality eye care to the rural masses from the very beginning, most of it free of cost. In the larger context, this paper discusses how private entrepreneurship is taking quality Eye Care to the rural masses in India. This paper will discuss the Eye Care delivery model aimed at fighting Cataract Blindness in the context of the Culture-Centered Approach (CCA). The Culture-Centered Approach advoates greater engagment with the local culture, â€Å"through dialogues with community members†, to ensure â€Å"equitable† and â€Å"accessible† healthcare across communities (Dutta-Bergman, 2004a, 2004b; Dutta and Basu 2007 as quoted in Dutta, 2008). Furthermore, this paper will use the Extended Technology-Community-Management (TCM) model (Chib Komathi, 2008) to explain the intersections between technology, community and the management of information communication technologies (ICT) in the context of the CCA and the Eye Care delivery model adopted by the private healthcare players i.e. the non-governmental organisations (NGOs). According to the TCM model (Lee Chib, 2008), the intersection of ICT characteristics of technology, along with the dimensions of software and hardware, project management dimensions of financial requirements, the regulatory environment, and stakeholder involvement, along with local community participation â€Å"will ultimately lead to sustainable ICTD interventions.† Culture-Centered Approach Globalisation has led to an increasing realisation that the Biomedical[6] model of healthcare is limited in scope when engaging in issues of global health (Dutta, 2008). Furthermore, Dutta (2008) says that many societies now feel the need to â€Å"open up the spaces of health communication to the voices of cultural communities† i.e. there is now greater awarness of the need for better engagement with marginalised communities. Culture is dynamic. That culture has an important role to play in health communication is better understood today. But this concept began attracting widespread attention only in the early 1980s, especially in the U.S. when healthcare practitioners felt a need to adopt multiple strategies to address the health-related issues of a multicultural population (Dutta, 208). â€Å"This helped question the universalist assumptions of various health communication programs† aimed at the developing nations and the so called third-world nations   (Dutta, 2008). The Culture-Centered Approach was born out of the need to oppose the dominant approach of health communication, located within the Biomedical model, where health is treated as a â€Å"universal concept based on Eurocentric[7] understandings of health-related issues, disease and the treatment of diseases† (Dutta, 2008). According to Dutta (2008), the CCA is a better alternative to understanding health communication because it is a â€Å"value-centered† approach. The CCA is built on the notion that the â€Å"meanings of health† cannot be universal because they are ingrained within cultural contextsm, he argues.  Ã‚   The CCA has its roots in three key concepts i.e. ‘structure, ‘agency and ‘culture. The term ‘culture refers to the local context within which so called health meanings are created and dealt with. ‘Structure encompasses food, shelter, medical services and transportational services that are all vital to the overall healthcare of various members of a community. ‘Agency points to the â€Å"capacity of cultural members† to negotiate the structures within which they live. It must be noted that ‘structure, ‘agency and ‘culture and entwined and they do not operate in isolation. Dutta (2008), in his book Communicating Health, further elaborates that the CCA throws light on how the dominant healthcare ideology serves the needs of those in power. Powerful members of society create conditions of marginalistaion. Therefore the focus of the CCA lies in the study of the intersections between ‘structure, ‘agency and ‘culture in the context of marginalised communities. To understand better the problems faced by the marginalised, the CCA advocates the healthcare practitioners engage in dialogues with members of the concerned community. Each community has its own set of stories to share and this is vital to understanding the local culture. The CCA also aims to document resistance, of any kind, to dominant ideologies as this helps strengthen the case of the CCA against the dominant healthcare model. The CCA, according to Dutta (2008), provides sufficient scope to study physician-patient relationships, in a bid to ultimately improve the healthcare deli very model. Adopting the CCA is just half your problem solved; the integration of the CCA with the Extended TCM model completes the picture.   The Extended TCM Model The TCM model (Lee Chib, 2008) argues that the larger question of social sustainability depends on both local relevance and institutional support. The TCM Model proposes that the intersection of ICT characteristics of technology, along with the dimensions of software and hardware, project management dimensions of financial requirements, the regulatory environment, and stakeholder involvement, along with local community participation, will ultimately lead to sustainable ICTD interventions (See Figure 1.1). The TCM model was further revised. Community was subdivided to include: modes of ownership of ICT investments and profits; training of community users both in the use and in technology management; and the basic needs of the community. Furthermore, Sustainability was also subdivided into financial and social (see Figure 1.2). Chib Komathi (2009) found that the TCM Model was inadequate as it could not examine the critical issue of vulnerability. Therefore, their study improved on this inadequacy by adding crucial factors and variables relating to vulnerability. They extended the TCM model, and called it the Extended Technology-Community-Management (Extended TCM) model (see Figure1.3).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This new framework on ICT planning accounts for community involvement, the management components, the overall design of technologies such as telemedicine or tele-consultation, and evaluation of existing vulnerabilities in the community where these technologies are implemented. It identifies four dimensions of vulnerabilities influencing technology implementation among the rural poor: economic vulnerability, informational vulnerability, physiological/psychological vulnerability, and socio-cultural vulnerability. Chib Komathi (2009) further explain each dimension of vulnerability: Physiological and psychological vulnerabilities refer to the physical and mental well-being of an affected person, or a specific community. Informational vulnerability deals with the access to and availability of information within affected communities. Informational resources include personal documents, books and critical data, opinion leaders and professional experts,. The lack of such resources affects the capabilities of people who are dependent on them. In a rural setting, informational vulnerability is further augmented by the low literacy levels and lack of pertinent â€Å"technological skills necessary to enable the learning and processing of information.† The economic vulnerability is sparked off by the loss of livelihood i.e. a loss of activities that otherwise financially support households and sustain economic growth in a rural setting. The socio-cultural vulnerability of communities is determine d by â€Å"the structure and values of a given society that define human relationships in communities.† Hierarchies in any society (gender, race, religion, caste, age and class egalitarianism within communities) or a community often dictate access to resources and assets, and the decision-making power of people. Cataract Blindness in India At the outset, one has to understand the sufferings of the blind in India, in a rural setting blindness, irrespective of the cause, results in a loss of livelihood for an individual. In rural India, like elsewhere, this would translate into one less earning member in the family, making the blind person a burden to his/her family. This leads to a loss of dignity and status in the family. In effect, blind people in rural India, like in many other societies, are marginalized. Enter Aravind and LVPEI, who continue to strive to help blind people in rural India and empower them by giving them back their sight. There are many causes of blindness, like Diabetes for instance. But Cataract is one of the leading causes of blindness in the developing world. Records in India show that Cataract is the most significant cause of blindness in the country (Nirmalan et al. 2002 Murthy et al. 2001).Cataract, reports say, is responsible for 50 to 80 per cent of the bilaterally blind (Thulsiraj et al. 2003 Thulsiraj et al. 2002).The elderly are more at risk of developing Cataract. India aims to eliminate needless blindness by 2020 in line with ‘Vision 2020: the right to sight initiative, launched jointly by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the International Agency for Prevention of Blindness (IAPB). Many organisations worldwide are also working in the direction of eliminating needless blindness (Foster, 2001). The government in India and the World Bank launched the Cataract Blindness Control Project in seven states across India in 1994.From close to 1.2 million cataract surgeries a year in the 1980s (Minassian Mehra 1990), Cataract surgical output tripled to 3.9 million per year by 2003 (Jose, 2003). In 2004, World Health Organization (WHO) data showed that there was a 25 per cent decrease in blindness prevalence in India (Resnikoff et al. 2004) the reason(s) could be the increase in Cataract surgeries countrywide. But there is a larger problem here, that of population growth. The aged population in India (those aged over 60 years) population which stood at 56 million people in the year 1991 is expected to double by the year 2016 (Kumar, 1997). This ‘greying of Indias population only suggests that the number of people ‘at-risk of developing Cataract is constantly on the rises. In the larger sense, this paper aims to show how private entrepreneurship in India is taking quality eye care to the rural masses in that country. This paper aimed to discuss the same through two case studies, that of the Aravind Eye Care system as well as the L V Prasad Eye Institute (LVPEI). Unfortunately, email correspondence with LVPEI failed to elicit responses from this organization. Given the limitations of this study, including time constraints, this paper will explain the Aravind Eye Care system in the context of rural Eye Care in India and the fight against Cataract Blindness all this within the framework of the CCA. Furthermore, this paper will critique the business model of NGOs like Aravind in the context of the Extended TCM model, including whether for-profit organisations are using the rural masses to support their business model. In particular, what is the role of the healthcare provider in this case disseminate knowledge to the grass-roots or live-off their healthcare delivery model? Aravind Eye Care Dr. G. Venkataswamy had a very simple vision when he first setup Aravind Eye Care in 1976: â€Å"Eradicate needless blindness at least in Tamil Nadu, his home state, if not in the entire nation of India.† Aravind began as an 11-bed private clinic in the founders brothers house in the southern Indian city of Madurai. Today, the Aravind Eye Hospital (AEH) at Madurai is a 1,500 bed hospital.   In addition to Madurai, there are four more AEHs in Tamil Nadu (Aravind.org) with a combined total of over 3,500 beds. By 2003 the Aravind Eye Care System as we know it today was up and running. The System continues to operate under the aegis of a nonprofit trust named the Govel Trust it comprises of a manufacturing facility (for manufacturing synthetic lenses, sutures, and pharmaceuticals related to eye care); eye hospitals; education and training (graduate institute of ophthalmology); research facilities (complete with an eye bank);) and a center for community outreach programs (Prahlad, 2004). A typical day at Aravind now has doctors performing about 1,000 surgeries including free surgeries; 5-6 outreach camps in rural areas where about 1,500 people are examined and close to 300 people are brought to an AEH for eye surgery (TED, 2009). How does Aravind do it? The organisation has setup ‘vision centers or clinics in remote villages, fitted with basic eye care equipment. Each clinic is manned by an ophthalmic assistant and â€Å"these clinics perform basic examinations; prescribe corrective lenses and treat minor ailments.† If an eye ailment can be cured by the application of eye drops, these clinics are equipped to do so.   For more complicated cases, such as Cataract Blindness, the patient consults an ophthalmologist based at an AEH in a nearby city via the videoconferencing route. If the patient needs corrective surgery, he/she is asked to hop onto a bus waiting outside the ‘vision centre that takes them to the nearest Aravind base hospital. The patients are operated upon the following day; they spend a day in post-operative care and then take a bus back to their villages all free of cost (Laks, 2009).[8] But it wasnt all gung-ho in the beginning; more hard work than anything else. There was no specific Outreach team. Everyone in the pool was asked to participate in Outreach programme. â€Å"In the beginning (in 1976-77) Dr. V and a small team would visit villages and conduct eye screening camps. Those who required Cataract surgery would then be advised to visit the base hospital for surgery. But Dr .V found that a majority of those advised to undergo surgery would dropout, owing to socio-economic factors like fear of surgery; lack of trust on restoration of sight; no money to spend for transport, food and post operative medical care and (their) resistance to western medicine,† according to the head of Outreach activities at Aravind, R. Meenakshi Sundaram in his email response to my queries. These barriers were gradually addressed through various strategies. â€Å"We decided to involve village chiefs and local organizations to take ownership of the Outreach programmes, in terms of identifying the right location for the Eye Camp and providing the required support facilities. Their help was key to community mobilization. We organized a team to standardize the quality in Eye Care service delivery. Furthermore, Dr. V focussed his attention on building hospitals like ones home where we normally expect basic culture and values,† said Mr. Sundaram. â€Å"Fear of surgery was a common barrier in addition to other factors. Perhaps the acceptance for surgery was low in the beginning. But it was constantly explained at the community level whenever camps were organized as the programme aims to serve people at large. Particularly, in the year 1992 the Intra Ocular Lens (IOL) was introduced and the rural community did not believe in having a ‘foreign particle in their eyes. We came across a lot of myths. Those issues were addressed thru counselling,† added Mr. Sundaram. Realizing the impact of counselling, a cadre was developed within the System in 1992 and seven counsellors were trained in the first batch of counsellors training. They were given a basic orientation about common eye problems with a special focus on IEC. ‘Patient counsellors i.e. patients who had undergone eye surgery were asked to help the Outreach team. â€Å"They played their role in explaining eye problems in the local language and tried to help others realize the consequences of failing to accept surgery. Considering the myths, a real IOL was used as education material to help the rural folk understand the concept of the IOL,† Mr Sundaram said. The number of counsellors has steadily risen ever since and stands at 179 at present. How is the Aravind Eye Care System possible? Financial self-sustainability was the primary focus from day one at Aravind. Initially, the organization was given a grant by the government to help subsidize the treatment costs for eye camp patients (Prahlad, 2004) and the Govel Trust also pledged properties to raise money from banks in the early days. Prahlad (2004) states that the Madurai AEH, the first, was always self-supporting as far as recurring expenditures were concerned. Within the first five years of operation, the Madurai AEH had accumulated surplus revenues for further development and for the construction of four other hospitals in the Tamil Nadu state. He adds that over the years, the patient revenues generated from its five hospitals located in five cities finance the Aravind Eye Care System to a great extent. Furthermore, Aravind has also taken to the management-contract route and it manages two hospitals outside of its home-state. While city folk are charged market rates for each consultancy and for surgery, patients in remote villages pay just Rs. 20 for three consultancies or SGD 0.60. (TED, 2009). Those who can afford to pay, the urban folk who visit Aravinds hospitals in urban locations on their own, do not get discounted rates. Such a system of cross-subsidies ensures that only 45 percent pay while the rest are not charged at all i.e. about five out of every 10 patients examined at Aravind can be provided free eye care, including eye surgery (TED, 2009). A cross-subsidising financial model is not the only mantra[9] to Aravinds success. Having been in the business of delivering quality Eye Care for over three decades now, the System is well-positioned to leverage on the Aravind brand-name to attract donations. Over the years, the organization has received international recognition for its work and this includes the 2008 Gates Award for Global Health, and this years Conrad N. Hilton Humanitarian Prize that carries a US$1.5 million cash award. Last but not the least is the money that flows into Aravind in the form of specific project-funding. One such sponsor is the London-based ‘Seeing Is Believing (SiB) Trust, a collaboration between Standard Chartered Bank and the International Agency for Prevention of Blindness (IAPB). Since 2003, ‘Seeing is Believing has grown from a staff initiative to raise enough money to fund a cataract operation for each member of the Bank to a US$40 million global community initiative. I wrote to Standard Chartered Bank (SCB) asking them why they decided to partner with Aravind and LVPEI. â€Å"LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, as well as Aravind Eye Hospital are premier eye care institutes in the country.   India has a vast geographic spread and both these institutions work in different geographic zones of the country.   LVPEI is prominent in the south-eastern states of the country while Aravind is prominent in the southern states of India,† said Pratima Harite, Manager (Sustainability), Corporate Affairs- India in her email response to my queries. The rationale behind the India Consortium Project is the ‘vision centre concept that a significant proportion of eye problems corrected or detected at the primary care level has substantial savings to the individual and to the communities.   â€Å"Based on the success of LVPEIs Vision Centre model, the India Consortium Project proposed scaling up the development of Vision Centres in a co-ordinated matter in six states across the country.   For this, LVPEI sought support from four key implementing partners premier eye care institutions themselves across the country,† added Ms. Harite. Singapores Temasek Foundation (TF) part-funds SiB activities in India, particularly in capacity building i.e. in enhancing the training component of the SiB programme. Is this a viable business model? Aravind has perfected the model over the last three decades. They have the technology, behind the video consultation, in place â€Å"a low-cost wireless long-distance network (WiLDNet)† put together by the Technology and Infrastructure for Emerging Regions (TIER) research group at the University of California, Berkeley, California, USA.[10] This was done to overcome the issue of zero internet connectivity or slow connections that do not support video consultations in remote villages (Laks, 2009). In 2004, a mobile van with satellite connectivity was introduced to facilitate Tele-Consultations. The Indian Space Research Organisations (ISRO)[11] help was sought to this extent. The ‘vision centres can easily communicate with the base hospital (some 30 to 40 kms.) via satellite. These ‘vision centres effectively address the issue of accessibility, affordability and availability of quality Eye Care. â€Å"A series of centres were started across the Tamil Nadu state. Each base hospital is connected with a group of vision centres. At present, we have 10 ‘vision centres that operate on WiFi. The rest run on BSNL[12] broadband connections,† Mr Sundaram said. Aravind has the delivery system in place. A sound understanding of the local culture that in many cases is averse to western medicine and where modern-day medicine is not the first and only option to treat any disease or ailment. Why would a villager trust a doctor who drives down one fine morning and says he would like to operate upon them? Aravind begins by appointing a volunteer group for each community; some of these volunteers are further trained to serve as ophthalmic assistants and even as nurses in Aravinds hospitals. In a rural setting, rural folk trust their friends, neighbors, and their own people first. It is about creating ownership to the problem, like Mr. Sundaram said, and then partnering with the community to solve the problem. Aravinds financial results for the year 2008-09 were healthy. It raked in (income) US$22 million and spent (expenditure and depreciation) US$ 13 million.[13] Discussion That Aravind and other NGOs working in a similar direction, like LVPEI for instance, use the Culture-Centered Approach, as elaborated by Dutta (2008), in delivering quality eye care to rural India is quite clear. Aravind, in particular, has successfully integrated the CCA with the Technology-Communication-Management (TCM) model, as elaborated by Lee Chib (2008) to create a sustainable model for Eye Care delivery. ‘Accessibility and ‘affordability are the key factors in such healthcare models. In taking this route, one has to ensure that the technologies chosen for the job are cost-effective and easy to implement because capital expenditure and operational expenditure do play a vital role in determining the cost of healthcare services. Aravind has been able to keep the cost of Eye Care delivery considerable low consistently for many years now. Critics argue that organizations like Aravind are feeding-off their model. At this point, it is important to understand the ground-realities. In India, the divide between the urban ‘haves, and the rural ‘have-nots is only getting wider with each passing year. According to UN projections released 2008, India would urbanize at a much slower rate than China and have, by 2050, 45% of its population still living in rural areas (Lederer, 2008). The Government in India is not doing enough to address the plethora of health issues that plague [the various regions and communities in] the country. The flagship scheme to improve healthcare services in rural India, the National Rural Health Mission    launched in 2005 as a seven-year programme has many of its goals yet to be achieved, and the government is now considering extending it to 2015, according to recent media reports. Despite many a government claims and many a government schemes several villages in states across India co ntinue to depend on the private sector for quality healthcare or in this case Eye Care. Given this situation, Aravind and LVPEIs work in the direction of providing affordable Eye Care and free eye surgeries to five out of every ten patients they examine is a commendable feat.   A second question raised in this study is, what is the role of the healthcare provider in this case disseminate knowledge to the grass-roots or live-off their healthcare delivery model? Aravind is doing its part in disseminating knowledge to the grass-roots. Most ophthalmic assistants who man the ‘vision centers are community members trained by Aravind. But one has to understand that the act of knowledge dissemination in a remote rural setting has its challenges i.e. tackling illiteracy, basic awareness among others and these challenges cannot be addressed in just a few years. The India Consortium Project, sponsored by SCB and Temasek Foundation, set a target to set up 40 ‘vision centres by 2010. So far, 32 ‘vision centres are operational and the remaining will be operational this year, according to Ms. Harite.   On the flip side, a study by Murthy et al. (2008) argues that the goals of the ‘Vision 2020: the right to sight initiative to eliminate Cataract blindness in India by the year 2020 may not be achieved. But this should not deter those working in this direction. Both the public and the private sector must continue to fight Cataract Blindness because that is the only way to tackle the problem at hand. Last but not the least, this study recommends that NGOs operating in the healthcare space look at both the CCA and the TCM model to ensure better service delivery. References Chib, A. Komathi, A.L.E. (2009). Extending the Technology-Community-Management Model to Disaster Recovery: Assessing Vulnerability in Rural Asia. Submitted to ICTD 2009. Dutta, M. J. (2008). Communicating Health. Polity Press, Cambridge, U.K. Foster A. (2001).Cataract and Vision 2020 the right to sight initiative. British Journal Ophthalmology, 85, 635-639. Jose R, Bachani D. (2003). Performance of cataract surgery between April 2002 and March 2003. NPCB-India;2:2. Kumar S. (1997). Alarm sounded over Greying of Indias population. Lancet, 350, 271 Lee, S., Chib, A. (2008). Wireless initiatives for connecting rural areas: Developing a framework. In N. Carpentier B. De Cleen (Eds.), Participationand media production. Critical reflections on content creation. ICA 2007Conference Theme Book (pp. 113-128). Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Lederer, E.M. (2008). Mint. Retrieved April 16, 2010, from http://www.livemint.com/2008/02/27231012/Half-the-world8217s-populat.html Laks, R. (2009). Videoconferencing and Low-cost Wireless Networks Improve Vision in Rural India. Comminit.com. Retrieved April16, 2010, from http://www.comminit.com/en/node/301452/307 Minassian DC, Mehra V. (1990). 3.8 Million blinded by cataract each year: Projections from the first epidemiological study of incidence of cataract blindness in India. Br J Ophthalmol, 4, 341-3. Murthy GV, Gupta S, Ellwein LB, Munoz SR, Bachani D, Dada VK. (2001). A Population-based Eye Survey of Older Adults in a Rural District of Rajasthan: I, Central Vision Impairment, Blindness and Cataract Surgery. Ophthalmology, 108,679-85. Nirmalan PK, Thulasiraj RD, Maneksha V, Rahmathullah R, Ramakrishnan R, Padmavathi A,et al. (2002). A population based eye survey of older adults in Tirunelveli district of south India: Blindness, cataract surgery and visual outcomes. Br J Ophthalmol, 86, 505-12. Prahlad, C. K. (2004). The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid. Wharton School Publishing, Pennsylvanial, U.S. Resnikoff S, Pascolini D, Etyaale D, Kocur I, Pararajasegaram R, Pokharel GP,et al. (2004). Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002. Bull WHO, 82, 844-51. TED. (2009). Thulasiraj Ravilla: How low cost eye care can be world class. Retrieved April 16, 2010, from http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/thulasiraj_ravilla_how_low_cost_eye_care_can_be_worl

Essay --

CHILDREN WITH A DISABILITY Children with a disability are children first Around 320,000 Australian children 0-14 years have a disability Disabilities that affect children are intellectual, psychiatric, sensory/speech, acquired brain injury and physical. The prevalence of profound or severe disability in children is gradually increasing1 , particularly among children aged 5-14. The main area of increase is intellectually disabling conditions, most reported as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (AHDH).2 Also reported is a dramatic increase in the rate of diagnosis of Autism spectrum disorders (atypical neurological functioning) over the past decade.3 The majority of children with a disability live with their families During much of the 20th Century, children with a disability were provided with ‘whole of life’ services, usually in large, segregated institutional settings. The process of ‘deinstitutionalisation’ that has occurred over recent decades is one of the leading policy and structural transformations in health and community services of the last century. Between 1981 and 1996, the number of people aged 0-14 accommodated in institutions almost halved.4 Children with disabilities belong with their families, not in institutions, but families often require extra financial assistance and services to care for a son or daughter with a disability. Without such support, the impact of disability can impose significant pressure on parents and siblings and can lead to family breakdown. Most children with a disability go to the local school In 2001, using a narrow definition of disability that excluded children with specific learning difficulties, State Education Departments identified 114,250 st... ...rge multi-service organisations, and are located in every State and Territory across Australia. NDS defines its purpose under two broad categories. Firstly, it works to increase the capacity of its members to operate efficiently and effectively through provision of information, networking opportunities, and corporate partnerships. Secondly, NDS exists to make the voices of people with disabilities and their service providers heard by governments at both state/territory and federal levels. By so doing, NDS influences public policy to deliver outcomes that are responsive to the needs of people with disabilities and their providers. NDS has a National Secretariat in Canberra and offices in every State and Territory. More information: Locked Bag 3002 DEAKIN WEST ACT 2600 Phone: 02 6283 3200 Fax: 02 6281 3488 Email: nds@nds.org.au Web: www.nds.org.au Essay -- CHILDREN WITH A DISABILITY Children with a disability are children first Around 320,000 Australian children 0-14 years have a disability Disabilities that affect children are intellectual, psychiatric, sensory/speech, acquired brain injury and physical. The prevalence of profound or severe disability in children is gradually increasing1 , particularly among children aged 5-14. The main area of increase is intellectually disabling conditions, most reported as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (AHDH).2 Also reported is a dramatic increase in the rate of diagnosis of Autism spectrum disorders (atypical neurological functioning) over the past decade.3 The majority of children with a disability live with their families During much of the 20th Century, children with a disability were provided with ‘whole of life’ services, usually in large, segregated institutional settings. The process of ‘deinstitutionalisation’ that has occurred over recent decades is one of the leading policy and structural transformations in health and community services of the last century. Between 1981 and 1996, the number of people aged 0-14 accommodated in institutions almost halved.4 Children with disabilities belong with their families, not in institutions, but families often require extra financial assistance and services to care for a son or daughter with a disability. Without such support, the impact of disability can impose significant pressure on parents and siblings and can lead to family breakdown. Most children with a disability go to the local school In 2001, using a narrow definition of disability that excluded children with specific learning difficulties, State Education Departments identified 114,250 st... ...rge multi-service organisations, and are located in every State and Territory across Australia. NDS defines its purpose under two broad categories. Firstly, it works to increase the capacity of its members to operate efficiently and effectively through provision of information, networking opportunities, and corporate partnerships. Secondly, NDS exists to make the voices of people with disabilities and their service providers heard by governments at both state/territory and federal levels. By so doing, NDS influences public policy to deliver outcomes that are responsive to the needs of people with disabilities and their providers. NDS has a National Secretariat in Canberra and offices in every State and Territory. More information: Locked Bag 3002 DEAKIN WEST ACT 2600 Phone: 02 6283 3200 Fax: 02 6281 3488 Email: nds@nds.org.au Web: www.nds.org.au

Marketing Essay -- essays research papers

MULTI EXPRESS TOOTHBRUSH Introduction: A toothbrush that has multiple uses and saves space, that’s the vision behind the Multi Express Toothbrush. The product at hand is a toothbrush that pulls apart at the handle to provide consumers with dental floss and toothpaste. The rear part of the handle contains a button that when pushed down also allows forward movement; this action squeezes the toothpaste cartridge. When the button is pressed a hole at the end of the handle opens up allowing the toothpaste to exist, when the button is released the hole closes and seals off the toothpaste. The end with the brush contains a cartridge full of dental floss. The use of cartridges is important because when one becomes empty just pull it out and insert another quick, easy, and simple. When done brushing and flossing snap the two ends together and your ready for your next use. Target Market:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Multi Express Toothbrush can be used by anyone: children, teenagers, and adults. Parents when your children go to sleepovers don’t waste your time and space packing a toothbrush, toothpaste, and dental floss the Multi Express Toothbrush contains all three. Teenagers can’t brush your teeth after lunch because you can’t fit toothbrush and toothpaste in your already crammed full book bags use the Multi Express Toothbrush whether you’re in high school or college and keep those smiles bright and white. Adults I know what your thinking, I barely have enough time to sit down and eat my lunch let alone brush my teeth afterwards. With the Multi Express Toothbrush it’s as simple as one, two, and three; pull, squeeze, and brush now that’s fast. Business men and women who have to travel the Multi Express Toothbrush is for you, because you’re on the go and you need that extra space in your luggage. Product:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Multi Express Toothbrush design is unique; its handle is large and slims down toward the end of the brush. The handle when separated has two cartridges. These two cartridges contain dental floss and toothpaste. These cartridges can be reloaded when they run out. The dimensions of the Multi Express Toothbrush are nine inches in length and one and a half inches in width. The width of the handle is what makes it possible for the Multi Express Toothbrush to contain these items. The button at the back part of the handl... ... your personal supplies. No more, nasty, dried up toothpaste containers our patented squeezing system eliminates the mess. The Multi Express Toothbrush is for everyone whether you’re going on sleepovers, brushing your teeth after lunch, camping in the woods, or traveling for business or for pleasure. Replacement cartridges are quick and easy to switch. The price of the Multi Express Toothbrush will be affordable, because we are charging the lowest price possible that allows our company to obtain a profit. Discount by coupons and other promotional offers will be used. Advertising on television will allow us the opportunity to draw in new customers and keep the ones we have already. Packages should be durable cutting down on the amount of damaged products. Our package should be attractive and draw customers’ attention. The use of intensive distribution will allow us full coverage of the market, making the product available to all consumers at a variety of locations. I n conclusion our goal is to keep customers satisfied buy offering them a quality product at a reasonable price. We like to think were making the world brighter one smile at a time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

American Era Best Choice :: essays research papers

During the period from 1865 to 1929, I think that the most important person, event and technology were Abraham Lincoln, The Civil War, and the airplane.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Abraham Lincoln, the person I felt most important, was an incredible man. Not only for his charisma, and character, but for his actions and what he believed in.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He was a man from the North, who was for the abolishment of slavery. He was a Republican. Although good to the North, the Southerners declares him as the greatest evil of the century. President Lincoln won the election with 180 electoral votes and 1,865,583 of the popular votes. Winning the South by a hundred electoral votes and thousands of popular votes in 1860.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Confederates broke off with the United States, the civil war became a fight to keep as a union. Lincoln declared himself as commander in chief, forced his troops to emancipate slaves, as well as protect them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lincoln grew up poor, taught himself all that he knew, his belief of all men being created equal is what set's him apart from so many other people. During this time he was revolutionary in changing the lives of slaves and the mind of a white man.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He signed the 13th Amendment, freeing all slaves. He also gave one of the most inspirational speeches of his time at Gettysburg. And along with his words, the country held together.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I feel that President Abraham Lincoln kept this country together, without his leadership, our country would not be one solid nation, rather broken into separate ruled states. Although being assassinated on April 15, 1865, to me he is still the most important man in American history.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The events that I thought were very important ties up with President Lincoln, the Civil War.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Civil War is what eventually kept the states together. It is said to be the war with the most loss of life on American soil.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This war started on April 12, 1861 at Fort Sumter and ended on June 8, 1863 at Fort Hudson on the border of Mississippi and Louisiana. Although it is said, the last battle was at Gettysburg.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The reason I feel the Civil War was so important to United States history and all the eras are because it was one thing that kept us all under one democratized government. Without the war, we would be just another jumbled, out of government and troubled country.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most important technological development I think would have to be the airplane.

Case Study Report of Secom Essay

This is a rental service of the equipment. Before they started this service, a security company sent the guard man to its customers. However, this system was not effective to make the company large because if the company became larger, the manager should employ too many people to manage. To avoid this situation, SECOM decided to change the security system from employing people to leasing the machine. In order to come true this system, Iida and Toda had to calculate the cost and profits in very detail. SECOM’s service covers many kinds of fields such as medical-fields, informational-fields and environmental-fields. This is because SECOM wants to give the total safe to its customers. Even if SECOM’s service fields spread, it still keeps its own philosophy and strategy based on philosophy. Thus, SECOM has been a strong enough company to survive Japanese unstable economy. However, there is a problem in the company: a successor problem. 3. Problems Now, SECOM has a strong leader, Makoto Iida, but he is 61 years old and has to think about a successor. However, there is no appropriate person who can lead the company and survive in this society. 4. Analysis of the current situations 1) One cause for the successor problem is the growing speed of the company. SECOM has been growing for 30 years, but these years are not enough to think about a successor. (2) Another cause for the successor problem is the difficulty for raising a leader. SECOM’s philosophy is also Iida’s philosophy, and he wants his successor to follow this philosophy. However, any successor will be different from Iid a. Iida thinks that â€Å"What I can tell him is no more than a half of all that he must learn (Keio Business School, 1994). † 5. Propose strategic solutions Solution A: Iida will help the successor until the new system will be stable as an outside chairman. Pros: Iida can advise to his successor when the successor cannot make clear decision. Moreover, the successor can follow the Iida’s philosophy and strategy. Cons: If Iida disappear suddenly, the system and company will be shocked by his disappearance. Solution B: To choose an efficient leader from other company. Pros: (1) SECOM does not have to think about raising the successor, because this new leader is already efficient for running the company. (2) By receiving an outside person, SECOM can get a new point of view in it. Cons: (1) An outside person, who does not know the culture of the company, may break the old but efficient system for SECOM. (2) The new leader comes from other company, so he may not be able to have support from the company’s member and may be isolated. 6. Decision-making Solution B will be the most appreciate solution of the successor problems. 7. Conclusion SECOM is growing with Iida and Toda and with their strategies. However, it needs new points of view to survive this society. Any company should adapt to the changeable society, or it will disappear.

With Independence Comes Greater Responsibility.

â€Å"With independence comes greater responsibility. † Ring! Ring! the alarm clock wakes me up at precisely 7:30 am on the first day of summer. My parents rush into my room yelling at me to get up. I’m oblivious to what’s happening because my eyes are still half closed. As I regain my senses I see that my parents are wearing tank-tops and shorts. Instantly I remember that we’re going to China for the summer. After that commotion my parents left the room leaving me with two empty bags to be filled with my belongings that would last me two months. It’s inevitable that I’ll forget something, I mean I always do.Every summer we go to vacations and I always forget to bring the right amount of underwear or my prescribed cream because usually my mom does it for me. This time it’s different, I’m older and I should be able to do it myself. I arbitrarily put everything in my bag. From every item of clothing, every pair of shoes plus the t hings in between. Next thing you know I’m at the airport with my parents unloading our luggage onto a cart. Inside, at the terminal desk the woman behind the counter was telling us that they were overbooked causing us to get upgraded to first class, but there was a problem.There were only two spots available, and one of us had to wait for the next flight. I told my parents that i wanted to stay behind, i mean, i wanted to prove to them that i was responsible enough plus it was kind of romantic for them to be alone. They actually listened to what i had to say and gave me what i wanted. Fast forward to the plane being boarded i was watching my parents leave without me, i had a little anxiety because it would be the first time that my parents let me go alone.Soon after they left i went to my gate with the help of the airport employees because i didn’t have a clue where anything was. I was on my own and i felt a little heartache watching the families around me having fun a nd bonding. We were being called onto the plane. First they called first class, seniors then it was my turn. I handed over my ticket and showed her my passport she noticed the tenseness in my body language and said â€Å"you look nervous, are you okay? †. I managed to let out a quiet â€Å"yes† even though i was telling a lie.I entered the plane and found my seat and sat down. After everyone settled down the plane started to move. It was doing circles around the driveway to warm up it’s engine. Then it stops and i could hear a huge roar from the engine. Before lift off my dad would always give me gum before liftoff so my ears wouldn’t pop. He would always buy juicy fruit but this time he wasn’t here and i didn’t have any. I forced myself to withstand the pressure. After the successful liftoff my moms lap would be my pillow and my mom would ask for a blanket.I was getting cold and tired so i asked the stewardess for a pillow and a blanket, ju st like how my parents would ask if they were with me. The blanket and pillow were amazingly comfy and i quickly fell asleep. Excuse me sir! Excuse me sir! It was the flight attendant asking me if i want beef or chicken. My parents would usually get my food for me and let me sleep longer. They weren’t here so i just picked what the guy beside me picked, beef. The airplane food was gross, i never liked it.I could see the family across from me and how they were all enjoying their meals and pretending that they were at their dinner table exchanging stories that happened to them. I sat quietly eating my meal. Then the guy beside me started to talk to me about the show i was watching. I usually never talk to anyone on the plane, but this time i thought i would give it a try. So i talked to him and he seem to be an interesting person to talk to. We talked the whole way before the seat belt sign went on. This is when we start landing and at that point my body started to shiver.I was always afraid of landing. My mom would usually hold my hand to keep me calm, but she wasn’t here. The guy who had become my friend saw me shiver and asked me what's wrong with me. I manned up and told him nothing’s wrong. Those last few seconds as the plane started to descend were the scariest time of my life. I kept my composure, and stayed calm. I knew i could do this , i know i can, I can, I can, I can. The heart was beating super fast. Then i heard â€Å"SCREECH† and i was safe. I knew my parents were waiting for me and i couldn’t wait to get off to see them again. I was so proud of myself.

Hotel Model Essay

The hotel model is where support staff do things for the people they look after and then become observers by not doing things for themselves. Active support is a way of ensuring people are able to engage and take part in their own support by having a person centred plan for them. Promoting Independence help the people I work with to regain or learn new skills to live there everyday life Informed Choice making sure the patient knows all the options that are available to them so they can make a choice of what they want to do  Valued life is the balance of activities that contribute to a good quality of life for the patients including domestic, personal, leisure, social actives and education Active support is a person centred model that is focused on the Individual and their needs it promotes independence by allowing the individual to do things for themselves, however small. Being independent doesn’t mean being completely on their own, but being Supported to do things for thems elves. It also gives them an informed choice the individual is given thorough information in order to make informed choices Themselves and valued life by giving them access to a good quality of life with all the different services and activities that are on offer The three elements in positive interaction that promote the individuals participation in an activity are naturally occurring reward (cup of tea they made for themselves) praise from staff and peers or getting to do an activity that they enjoy. I would speak to the patient and use visual aids and give them all the relevant information so they can make an informed choice. Highlight the potential risks and benefits and rehearsing the journey, where appropriate. I would make sure they have had their medication prior to the journey and that they take any medication they require with them for the journey they want to take. I would make a social story to explain what was going to happen and where we are going from leaving the unit to returning and ask the individual if this was ok. I would check the section 17 status for the patient, the seating plan for the vehicle and the patitais care plan for any new procedures the risks, dangers and difficulties associated with making journeys with the individual I work with, that they are wearing their seat belt. I would review the journey, with individuals, key people and others whether the journey met the planned outcomes and any changes that should be made for future journeys. I would ask the individual if they had a good time the things they liked about the trip the things they didn’t like and feed this back through the actives sheet for the trip. Fill out the activities sheet and the section 17 Leave form My assessor can see the forms I have completed. An individual’s participation represents the balance of activity associated with a valued life by joining in with the group, building social skills and friendships learning how to interact with peers and carers. Making choices for themselves, learning new skills, getting exercise and new domestic skills. Giving positive reinforcement through praise and rewards helps the individual to feel valued and part of the group

Compare and contrast Japan and European feudal systems

These upper CLC asses had a large class of commoners to rule over. They also both had similar ethics in the warrior class Like the Code of Conduct for the Knights and the Bushier for the Samurai. These â€Å"codes† were rules and guidelines that the warriors lived by that governed them socio politically, and ethically. Finally both systems had a strong military influence thanks t o a strong warrior class that led to many warring kingdoms within the civilizations.Also this Cree dated a strong defense system as constant attacks by enemy kingdoms threatened the lords r lull. They both built castles with curved walls to make attacks harder. These two feudalistic civilizations had differences in structure and ethics. The majority Y of difference between the two lies in the warrior class. Although they shared similar o verbal oleos In their respective systems they had many differences. One of which being there armor; knights had heavy metal armor that was sturdy but very hard to hau l around d.Samurai had leather armor with strips of iron infused into various spots of their nun form. Also Samurai led a more honorable lifestyle. Knights practiced chivalry but It paled In com parson to the Samurai way of life. Japanese warriors for starters committed suicide instead o admitting defeat or capture. Also they were above peasant people so they would not pillage villages or harm commoners. Japan held their warriors to a moral code that governed them to

Consumer Protection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Consumer Protection - Essay Example There were also certain ambiguities related to the actual people accountable for the faulty transaction. Hence, the author stresses on the need for stringent laws to protect the consumers' interests in business transactions. In addition, there appears to be an urgent need for a watchdog which would ensure that all laws are adhered to, in turn facilitating fair business practises. In the language of ecology, consumers are defined as those organisms who survive by depending on others around them (Consumer, AbNature, n.d.). This dependence could be for any day to day necessity, which they themselves are incapable of producing. And there are instances when triggered by the acute need of the consumer, this dependence on the producer has transformed into a form of exploitation, thus giving a freehand to the producers to make a kill. This definition and example might seem a little far fetched at the moment, but surprisingly both are in a way applicable in our day to day lives. There appears to be no end to our needs - material or spiritual and there are providers for all our needs. From the time we wake up each morning till the time we go back to sleep, knowingly or unknowingly, willingly or unwillingly, all of us tend to depend on one fellow human being or other for various reasons - hence, in a sense of speaking we all are consumers. Till the time all transactions happen in good faith and to the satisfaction to all parties involved, the world is a dreamland! However, the problem arises when the transactions do not happen in the true sense of fair practises. And considering that there are so many transactions happening, the possibility of exploitation cannot be ruled out. So, if we agree that we have advertently or inadvertently involved ourselves in one business transaction or the other, there have been at least one or two instances in our lives when we have felt that we as consumers have been given an unfair deal by the providers/salesman and the deal has not been concluded in the manner it should have been; in other words, our rights as customers have been infringed. The deal could be anything ranging from sale of faulty products, refusal to replace faulty products, unsatisfactory post-sales maintenance to poor service. And most often than not, in spite of continuous follow ups we have failed to get our issues addressed or resolved and the inconvenience compensated. Consumer protection is the current buzz word worldwide. There has been an increased awareness about the enormity of this need and there has been an increase in awareness among customers about their rights. Policies are being formulated, traders practising their trade unfairly are being implicated and there is a worldwide movement towards ensuring that the consumers get their due in all business transactions. However, in the absence of clear directions, policies and guidance on the grievance redressal systems, it is not always that the consumer is protected from unfair business practises. b. Objectives The need for consumer protection persists worldwide and it is no

OUTLINE Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

OUTLINE - Assignment Example In the present age where there is growth hence need for more food, the pesticides should be used as much as critics may perceive them to be poisonous. The Environmental protection Agency provides that food may not harm individuals if they are washed (Robin, pp.30) I. To know if the food that individuals eat is safe, one should be aware of the amount of pesticides left on the food consumed. This amount of pesticide is referred to as pesticide residue. According to the Environmental Agency, there is an amount that when left on the food makes it safe. This amount that is permitted on the food is known as pesticide tolerance. For the determination on what is to be left, the Environmental protection Agency dictates environmental and health risks that pesticides pose (Robin, pp.30) a) For the persons who do not consume organic foods, there are measures that can be considered to make the food harmless. Firstly, if foods are washed the consumption of pesticides are reduced to some amounts. The most effective way of washing is by the use of running water rather than soaking or dunking as it washes away pesticide on the surface unlike the other two that scatter them on the surface b) Apart from the washing effectiveness can be achieved by scrubbing vegetables and fruits like root and melon vegetables like root and melons vegetables. The leafy vegetables outer layer should be cast off to lessen exposure. Peeling vegetables and fruits if need be may be of help. Skin and fat can be sheared from poultry, fish and meat to lessen the pesticide residue amount that is in fats. In addition, eating various vegetables and fruits limits exposure to one pesticide type. A dry cloth should be used in drying of food to avoid contamination from towel. The consumers ought to know that organic food contains pesticides. In fact 95% of additives in organic food are organic. I. There are ways to decrease the pesticide amount that are got on foods, although

The Gamble House Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

The Gamble House - Essay Example Gamble House mood and symmetries tend to be different from other spacious contemporary buildings that were done in the 1900s. It has a casual mood that matches its localized symmetry. A very good example of the localization of symmetry in the masterpiece is the symmetrical organization of forms and spaces in relations to one another. In the three floors, the ceiling heights are different. The first-floor ceiling was the lowest while the den ceiling was the highest. Throughout the building, the scales and the forms shift constantly as one move from the interior towards the front and rear areas. The inclusion of the Gamble family attic in the third floor helped in making it a billiard room. A family crest, trailing rose and a crane were artistically integrated into many locations. Gamble House outdoor also symbolizes the historical building plans used in America during the 1990s. Outside the second-floor bedrooms are exterior porches that could be used for entertainment or for sleeping. The main terrace of the building was strategically designed and built to be privately beyond the back of the residence. Clinker boulders garden walls were also included to decorate the rear facade. The paths in the compound were made from stones forming a running brook across the lawns. The landscape and the garden elements were integrated into the required proportions and details. The Asian and Japanese influence on the structure can also be seen in the leaded glasses and the pine motif on the front door.

Sword Manufacturing of the Early, High, and Late Medieval Period Essay

Sword Manufacturing of the Early, High, and Late Medieval Period - Essay Example This symbolic importance was even shown in the Medieval swords design as the cross guard was framed over the handle of the sword to resemble a Christian cross. This gave the Knight the privilege to utilize the sword to protect the Christian religion. Medieval swords additionally highlighted some type of engravings. The engravings on Medieval Swords could incorporate the sword owners name and prayers to God. Engravings could likewise be simply decorations. Enhanced sword designs occurred around 1,300 and 1,500 A.D. Striking inventive sword designs had a longer grip, which permitted swordsmen to utilize two hands in battle. Long swords began to be generally utilized during the Late Middle Ages. The fame of the long sword developed because of enhanced functionality in cutting and thrusting as well as its far reaching ability (Wigelsworth, 2006). Sword smiths in northern Europe found a strategy for sword making whereby different bits of iron as well as steel bars of diverse hardness were joined by bending and folding them together. This was the method used in Europe during the early middle Ages. The capacity to work metal along these lines to make high quality swords depended on the quality of the metal used. This process was quite long and the sword smiths could take a substantial amount of time before completing one sword. This meant that the production of swords was quite slow According to Nelson & Theuws (2000), high middle age was a period of great innovation in sword making. It is during this period that sword smiths tried out different processes to acquire the best raw materials for sword making. During this period, the sword smith got to understand the processes of acquiring high quality swords without using unnecessary processes. It is during this period that the production of swords began to increase. During the late middle age, the sword smiths had perfected their skills in sword making and were aware of the important processes needed to

Discuss what enables staff to progress in their careers and how Essay - 1

Discuss what enables staff to progress in their careers and how managers can help them in their development in a health and social care setting - Essay Example Professional development will mainly involve enrollment in professional development programs in a given profession. The professional development programs, apart from improving the quality of services offered by an organization, â€Å"Boost individuals’ career, through travel, research, workshops and seminars, and through partnering with experienced professionals† (Morgan, 2007). In addition, professional development programs enable individuals to improve expertise in their fields and add value to the institutions through contributions in the developments. These programs are designed with the intention of helping people improve their level of competency and professionalism and are not only applicable to people in business or management, but also to other professionals such as medical practitioners, teachers, engineers, and nurses among others (Morgan, 2007). The health and social care practitioners are found in various settings and fields, requiring continued professional development to enhance delivery of quality healthcare and services. According to a joint statement on CPD for health and social care practitioners, â€Å"continuing professional development (CPD) is fundamental to the development of all health and social care practitioners, and is the mechanism through which high quality patient and client care is identified, maintained and developed† (RCN, 2011). Professional development in health and social care settings is pivotal in enhancing continued improvement in the quality of the services offered and high standards of care maintained. According to a Review of Continuing Professional Development in General Practice 1998, the effort to improve quality and excellence in clinical care provision can be achieved through CPD by focusing on three distinct inter-related areas: â€Å"clinical governance enhanced, professional s elf-regulation

Evaluate the UK tax system in the context of Adam's Canon of Taxation Essay

Evaluate the UK tax system in the context of Adam's Canon of Taxation - Essay Example 2008). In UK today, there exist no published figures on this particular ‘gap’ but statistics from the Tax Justice Network (TJN) indicate that UK’s fifty largest companies have paid an average of 5.7 per cent less corporation tax than ‘expected rates’ from 2000 to 2004 (Wolfgang et al. 2008). This largely depends upon what is ‘expected’ and some of the assumptions made are questionable. For instance, in UK, TJN has associated this with excessive corporate tax allowances given to motivate investment in plant and machinery that in turn result into high levels of deferred taxation (Wolfgang et al. 2008). Today, capital allowances constitute examples of various express tax relief and incentives, which are regarded by most governments as desirable in the context of their economic policies. Recent report findings by the National Audit Office in UK identified that, around 220 of the largest UK 700 companies paid no tax at all in the years 2005 an d 2006, which led to concerns being widely highlighted in the media that there were high levels of corporate tax avoidance (Wolfgang et al. 2008). Therefore, this research paper will largely look at and make evaluation of the UK tax system in the context of Adam’s Canon of Taxation. Background to Adam’s Canon of Taxation Adam Smith is considered the father of modern economics and part of his contribution to the field of economics was presentation of four principles of a good taxation system known as Adam Smith’s Canons of Taxation (Smith and Cannan 1976; Smith and Sutherland 1998). The four principles are as follows: Canon of Equity, in the words of Adam Smith, â€Å"people of every state should pay their share in proportion to their individual abilities, which means that they should pay tax proportion to that income which they respectively get under the government security† (Jain, Kaur, Gupta and Gupta n.d, p.30). The basic assumption of this law is that , people are supposed to pay taxes according their capacity, while equity in this sense means people should demonstrate equality of sacrifice in paying tax. For instance, since the rich people’s marginal utility of money is less than that for the poor, rich people are supposed to pay more amounts in taxes than the poor people (Jain, Kaur, Gupta and Gupta n.d). Therefore the principle of justice is implicated in this doctrine (Nicholson 1928) and in the words of Adam Smith, â€Å"It will be more justified for the rich to contribute to the public expenditure not only what is proportionate to their income but more than that† (Jain and Khanna 2006, p.349). The second canon is that of certainty, where the postulation of this principle is that, there need to be a certainty regarding taxes (Das, 1993). For example, in Smith’s words â€Å"the tax which each individual is bound to pay ought to be certain, and not arbitrary and that time of payment, the manner of payment , the quantity to be paid ought to be clear and plain to the contributor and to every other person† (Jain, Kaur, Gupta and Gupta n.d, p.30). These assumptions show that, in any taxation system, individuals must know how much tax they are supposed to pa